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Articles in This Slice(Welsh princes)(Kentucky, U.S.A.)(Ohio, U.S.A.)(state of the U.S.)(city)(municipal borough)(part or portion)(king of Bactria)(kings of Macedonia)(kings of Syria)(river of Wales)(Greek sculptor)(river of Scotland)(Cynic philosopher)859DAVID, ST ( Dewi, Sant), the national and tutelar saint ofWales, whose annual festival, known as “St David’s Day,” fallson the 1st of March. Few historical facts are known regardingthe saint’s life and actions, and the dates both of his birth anddeath are purely conjectural, although there is reason to supposehe was born about the year 500 and died at a great age towardsthe close of the 6th century. According to his various biographershe was the son of Sandde, a prince of the line of Cunedda, hismother being Non, who ranks as a Cymric saint. He seems tohave taken a prominent part in the celebrated synod ofLlanddewi-Brefi (see ), and to have presidedat the so-called “Synod of Victory,” held some years later atCaerleon-on-Usk. At some date unknown, St David, as penescolior primate of South Wales, moved the seat of ecclesiasticalgovernment from Caerleon to the remote headland of Mynyw,or Menevia, which has ever since, under the name of St David’s( Ty-Dewi), remained the cathedral city of the western see. StDavid founded numerous churches throughout all parts of SouthWales, of which fifty-three still recall his name, but apparentlyhe never penetrated farther north than the region of Powys,although he seems to have visited Cornwall. With the passingof time the saint’s fame increased, and his shrine at St David’sbecame a notable place of pilgrimage, so that by the time of theNorman conquest his importance and sanctity were fully recognized,and at Henry I.’s request he was formally canonized byPope Calixtus II.
In 1615 Davies published at Dublin Le Primer Discours des Caseset Matters in Ley resolues et adjudges en les Courts del Roy en cestRealme (reprinted 1628). He issued an edition of his poems in1622. His prose publications were mainly posthumous. The Questionconcerning Impositions, Tonnage, Poundage. Was printed in1656, and four of the tracts relating to Ireland, with an account ofDavies and his services to that country, were edited by G.
Chalmersin 1786. His works were edited by Dr A. Grosart (3 vols. 1869-1876),with a full biography, for the Fuller Worthies Library.He is not to be confounded with another poet, John Davies ofHereford (1565?-1618), among whose numerous volumes of versemay be mentioned Mirum in modum (1602), Microcosmus (1603),The Holy Roode (1609), Wittes Pilgrimage ( c.
1610), The Scourge ofFolly ( c. 1611), The Muses Sacrifice (1612) and Wittes Bedlam (1607);his Scourge of Folly contains verses addressed to many of his contemporaries,to Shakespeare among others; he also wrote A SelectSecond Husband for Sir Thomas Overbury’s Wife (1616), and TheWriting Schoolmaster (earliest known edition, 1633); his workswere collected by Dr A. Grosart (2 vols., 1873) for the ChertseyWorthies Library.
See The Speeches of Henry Winter Davis (New York, 1867), towhich is prefixed an oration on his life and character delivered in theHouse of Representatives by Senator J. Creswell of Maryland.DAVIS, JEFFERSON (1808-1889), American soldier and statesman,president of the Confederate states in the American CivilWar, was born on the 3rd of June 1808 at what is now the villageof Fairview, in that part of Christian county, Kentucky, whichwas later organized as Todd county. His father, Samuel Davis(1756-1824), who served in the War of Independence, was ofWelsh, and his mother, Jane Cook, of Scotch-Irish descent;during his infancy the family moved to Wilkinson county,Mississippi. Jefferson Davis was educated at TransylvaniaUniversity (Lexington, Kentucky) and at the United StatesMilitary Academy at West Point.
From the latter he graduatedin July 1828, and became by brevet a second lieutenant ofinfantry. He was assigned for duty to Jefferson Barracks at StLouis, and on reaching this post was ordered to Fort Crawford,near Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin. In 1833 he took part in theclosing scenes of the Black Hawk War, was present at the captureof Black Hawk, and was sent to Dixon, Illinois, to muster intoservice some volunteers from that state. Their captain wasAbraham Lincoln, and Lieutenant Davis is said to haveadministered to him his first oath of allegiance. In June 1835he resigned from the army, married Miss Knox Taylor, daughterof Colonel (later General) Zachary Taylor, and became a cottonplanter in Warren county, Miss.
In September of the sameyear, while visiting in Louisiana to escape the fever, his wifedied of it and Davis himself was dangerously ill. For the nextfew months he travelled to regain his health; and in the springof 1836 returned to his cotton plantation, where for several yearshe devoted his time largely to reading political philosophy,political economy, public law and the English classics, and bycareful management of his estate he acquired considerable wealth.In 1843 Davis entered the field of politics as a Democrat, andexhibited great power as a public speaker. In 1844 he was chosenas a presidential elector on the Polk and Dallas ticket; inFebruary 1845 he married Miss Varina Howell (1826-1906) ofMississippi (a granddaughter of Governor Richard Howell ofNew Jersey), and in the same year became a Democratic representativein Congress. From the beginning of his political careerhe advocated a strict construction of the Federal constitution.He was an ardent admirer of John C.
Calhoun, and eventuallybecame his successor as the leader of the South. In his rarespeeches in the House of Representatives he clearly defined hisposition in regard to states rights, which he consistently heldever afterwards. During his first session, war with Mexico wasdeclared, and he resigned his seat in June 1846 to take commandof the first regiment raised in his state—the Mississippi Rifles.He served in the Northern Campaign under his father-in-law,General Taylor, and was greatly distinguished for gallantry andsoldierly conduct at Monterey and particularly at Buena Vista,where he was severely wounded early in the engagement, butcontinued in command of his regiment until victory crowned theAmerican arms. While still in the field he was appointed (May1847) by President Polk to be brigadier-general of volunteers;but this appointment Davis declined, on the ground, as he afterwardssaid, “that volunteers are militia and the Constitutionreserves to the state the appointment of all militia officers.”Afterwards, Davis himself, as president of the Confederate States,was to appoint many volunteer officers.Upon his return to his home late in 1847 he was appointed tofill a vacancy in the United States Senate, and in 1850 he waselected for a full term of six years. He resigned in 1851, but wasagain elected in 1857, and continued as a member from that yearuntil the secession of his State in 1861.
As a senator he stood inthe front rank in a body distinguished for ability; his purityof character and courteous manner, together with his intellectualgifts, won him the esteem of all parties; and he became more andmore the leader of the Southern Democrats. He was, however,possessed of a logical rather than an intuitive mind. In hisfamous speech in the Senate on the 12th of July 1848, on thequestion of establishing a government for Oregon Territory, heheld that a slave should be treated by the Federal governmenton the same basis as any other property, and therefore that itwas the duty of Congress to protect the owner’s right to his slavein whatever state or territory of the Union that slave might be.In the debates on the Compromise Measures of 1850 he tookan active part, strongly opposing these measures, while HenryStuart Foote (1800-1880), the other Mississippi senator, was oneof their leading advocates. But although still holding to thetheory expounded in his July speech of 1848, he was now readywith the proposal that slavery might be prohibited north oflatitude 36° 30′ N. Provided it should not be interfered with inany territory south of that line.
He resigned from the Senate in1851 to become a candidate of the Democratic States-Rightsparty for the governorship of his state against Foote, the candidateof the Union Democrats. Authorities.—Several biographies and memoirs of Davis havebeen published, of which the best are: Jefferson Davis, Ex-Presidentof the Confederate States (2 vols., New York, 1890), by his widow;F. Alfriend’s Life of Jefferson Davis (Cincinnati, 1868), whichdefended him from the charges of incompetence and despotismbrought against him; E. Pollard’s Life of Jefferson Davis, witha Secret History of the Southern Confederacy (Philadelphia, 1869), asomewhat partisan arraignment by a prominent Southern journalist;and W. Dodd’s Jefferson Davis (Philadelphia, 1907), whichembodies the results of recent historical research. The Prison Lifeof Jefferson Davis (New York, 1866) by John J.
1893), aFederal army surgeon who was Davis’s physician at FortressMonroe, was long popular; it gives a vivid and sympathetic pictureof Mr Davis as a prisoner, but its authenticity and accuracy havebeen questioned. M.)DAVIS (or Davys), JOHN (1550?-1605), one of the chiefEnglish navigators and explorers under Elizabeth, especially inPolar regions, was born at Sandridge near Dartmouth about 1550.From a boy he was a sailor, and early made several voyages withAdrian Gilbert; both the Gilbert and Raleigh families wereDevonians of his own neighbourhood, and through life he seemsto have profited by their friendship. In January 1583 he appearsto have broached his design of a north-west passage to Walsinghamand John Dee; various consultations followed; and in1585 he started on his first north-western expedition. On this hebegan by striking the ice-bound east shore of Greenland, whichhe followed south to Cape Farewell; thence he turned north oncemore and coasted the west Greenland littoral some way, till,finding the sea free from ice, he shaped a “course for China”by the north-west. In 66° N., however, he fell in with BaffinLand, and though he pushed some way up Cumberland Sound,and professed to recognize in this the “hoped strait,” he nowturned back (end of August).
He tried again in 1586 and 1587;in the last voyage he pushed through the straits still named afterhim into Baffin’s Bay, coasting west Greenland to 73° N., almostto Upernavik, and thence making a last effort to find a passagewestward along the north of America. Many points in Arcticlatitudes (Cumberland Sound, Cape Walsingham, Exeter Sound,&c.) retain names given them by Davis, who ranks with Baffinand Hudson as the greatest of early Arctic explorers and, like869Frobisher, narrowly missed the discovery of Hudson’s Bay viaHudson’s Straits (the “Furious Overfall” of Davis). In 1588he seems to have commanded the “Black Dog” against theSpanish Armada; in 1589 he joined the earl of Cumberland offthe Azores; and in 1591 he accompanied Thomas Cavendishon his last voyage, with the special purpose, as he tells us, ofsearching “that north-west discovery upon the back partsof America.” After the rest of Cavendish’s expedition returnedunsuccessful, he continued to attempt on his own account thepassage of the Strait of Magellan; though defeated here by foulweather, he discovered the Falkland Islands. The passage homewas extremely disastrous, and he brought back only fourteen ofhis seventy-six men. After his return in 1593 he publisheda valuable treatise on practical navigation in The Seaman’sSecrets (1594), and a more theoretical work in The World’sHydrographical Description (1595).
His invention of back-staffand double quadrant (called a “Davis Quadrant” after him)held the field among English seamen till long after Hadley’sreflecting quadrant had been introduced. In 1596-1597 Davisseems to have sailed with Raleigh (as master of Sir Walter’sown ship) to Cadiz and the Azores; and in 1598-1600 he accompanieda Dutch expedition to the East Indies as pilot, sailingfrom Flushing, returning to Middleburg, and narrowly escapingdestruction from treachery at Achin in Sumatra. In 1601-1603he accompanied Sir James Lancaster as first pilot on his voyagein the service of the East India Company; and in December1604 he sailed again for the same destination as pilot to SirEdward Michelborne (or Michelbourn). On this journey he waskilled by Japanese pirates off Bintang near Sumatra. A Traverse Book made by John Davis in 1587, an Account of hisSecond Voyage in 1586, and a Report of Master John Davis of histhree voyages made for the Discovery of the North West Passage wereprinted in Hakluyt’s collection. Davis himself published TheSeaman’s Secrets, divided into two Parts (London, 1594), The World’sHydrographical Description.
Whereby appears that there is a shortand speedy Passage into the South Seas, to China, Molucca, Philippina,and India, by Northerly Navigation (London, 1595). Variousreferences to Davis are in the Calendars of State Papers, Domestic(1591-1594), and East Indies (1513-1616). See also Voyages andWorks of John Davis, edited by A. Markham (London, HakluytSociety, 1880), and the article “John Davys” by Sir J. Laughtonin the Dictionary of National Biography. His Poems and his Literary and Historical Essays were collectedin 1846. There is an edition of his prose writings (1889) in theCamelot Classics.
See the monograph on Thomas Davis by SirCharles Gavan Duffy (1890, abridged ed. 1896), and the samewriter’s Young Ireland (revised edition, 1896).DAVISON, WILLIAM ( c. 1541-1608), secretary to QueenElizabeth, was of Scottish descent, and in 1566 acted as secretaryto Henry Killigrew (d. 1603), when he was sent into Scotland byElizabeth on a mission to Mary, queen of Scots.
Remaining inthat country for about ten years, Davison then went twice to theNetherlands on diplomatic business, returning to England in1586 to defend the hasty conduct of his friend, Robert Dudley,earl of Leicester. In the same year he became member of parliamentfor Knaresborough, a privy councillor, and assistant toElizabeth’s secretary, Thomas Walsingham; but he soon appearsto have acted rather as the colleague than the subordinate ofWalsingham. He was a member of the commission appointedto try Mary, queen of Scots, although he took no part in itsproceedings. When sentence was passed upon Mary the warrantfor her execution was entrusted to Davison, who, after somedelay, obtained the queen’s signature. On this occasion, andalso in subsequent interviews with her secretary, Elizabethsuggested that Mary should be executed in some more secretfashion, and her conversation afforded ample proof that shedisliked to take upon herself any responsibility for the death ofher rival. Meanwhile, the privy council having been summonedby Lord Burghley, it was decided to carry out the sentence atonce, and Mary was beheaded on the 8th of February 1587.When the news of the execution reached Elizabeth she wasextremely indignant, and her wrath was chiefly directed againstDavison, who, she asserted, had disobeyed her instructions notto part with the warrant. The secretary was arrested andthrown into prison, but, although he defended himself vigorously,he did not say anything about the queen’s wish to get rid ofMary by assassination.
Charged before the Star Chamber withmisprision and contempt, he was acquitted of evil intention, butwas sentenced to pay a fine of 10,000 marks, and to imprisonmentduring the queen’s pleasure; but owing to the exertionsof several influential men he was released in 1589. The queen,however, refused to employ him again in her service, and heretired to Stepney, where he died in December 1608. Davisonappears to have been an industrious and outspoken man, and wasundoubtedly made the scapegoat for the queen’s pusillanimousconduct. By his wife, Catherine Spelman, he had a family of foursons and two daughters. Two of his sons, Francis and Walter,obtained some celebrity as poets.
Lorimer, Grammar and Vocabulary of Waziri Pushtu(1902).DAWES, HENRY LAURENS (1816-1903), American lawyer,was born at Cummington, Massachusetts, on the 30th ofOctober 1816. After graduating at Yale in 1839, he taught for atime at Greenfield, Mass., and also edited The Greenfield Gazette.In 1842 he was admitted to the bar and began the practice oflaw at North Adams, where for a time he conducted The Transcript.He served in the Massachusetts House of Representativesin 1848-1849 and in 1852, in the state Senate in 1850, and in theMassachusetts constitutional convention in 1853. From 1853 to1857 he was United States district attorney for the westerndistrict of Massachusetts; and from 1857-1875 he was aRepublican member of the national House of Representatives.In 1875 he succeeded Charles Sumner as senator from Massachusetts,serving until 1893. During this long period oflegislative activity he served in the House on the committees onelections, ways and means, and appropriations, took a prominentpart in the anti-slavery and reconstruction measures during andafter the Civil War, in tariff legislation, and in the establishmentof a fish commission and the inauguration of daily weatherreports. In the Senate he was chairman of the committee onIndian affairs, and gave much attention to the enactment oflaws for the benefit of the Indians. On leaving the Senate, in1893, he became chairman of the Commission to the Five CivilizedTribes (sometimes called the Dawes Indian Commission),and served in this capacity for ten years, negotiating with thetribes for the extinction of the communal title to their land andfor the dissolution of the tribal governments, with the objectof making the tribes a constituent part of the United States.Dawes died at Pittsfield, Mass., on the 5th of February 1903. The commission completed its labours on the 1st of July 1905,after having allotted 20,000,000 acres of land among 90,000 Indiansand absorbed the five Indian governments into the national system.The “five tribes” were the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creekand Seminole Indians.DAWES, RICHARD (1708-1766), English classical scholar,was born in or near Market Bosworth.
He was educated at thetown grammar school under Anthony Blackwall, and at EmmanuelCollege, Cambridge, of which society he was elected fellow in 1731.His peculiar habits and outspoken language made him unpopular.His health broke down in consequence of his sedentary life, andit is said that he took to bell-ringing at Great St Mary’s as arestorative. He was a bitter enemy of Bentley, who he declaredknew nothing of Greek except from indexes. In 1738 Dawes wasappointed to the mastership of the grammar school, Newcastle-on-Tyne,combined with that of St Mary’s hospital.
From allaccounts his mind appears to have become unhinged; hiseccentricities of conduct and continual disputes with his governingbody ruined the school, and finally, in 1749, he resigned hispost and retired to Heworth, where he chiefly amused himselfwith boating. He died on the 21st of March 1766. Dawes wasnot a prolific writer.
The book on which his fame rests is hisMiscellanea critica (1745), which gained the commendation ofsuch distinguished continental scholars as L. Valckenaerand J. The Miscellanea, which was re-edited byT. Burgess (1781), G. Harles (1800) and T. Kidd (1817), formany years enjoyed a high reputation, and although someof the “canons” have been proved untenable and few can beaccepted universally, it will always remain an honourable andenduring monument of English scholarship. N.)Legal Aspects.—In law, a day may be either a dies naturalis ornatural day, or a dies artificialis or artificial day.
A natural dayincludes all the twenty-four hours from midnight to midnight.Fractions of the day are disregarded to avoid dispute, thoughsometimes the law will consider fractions, as where it is necessaryto show the first of two acts. In cases where action must be takenfor preserving or asserting a right, a day would mean the naturalday of twenty-four hours, but on the other hand, as in cases ofsurvivorship, for testamentary or other purposes, it would sufficeif a person survived for even the smallest portion of the last daynecessary.When a statute directs any act to be done within so manydays, these words mean clear days, i.e. A number of perfectintervening days, not counting the terminal days: if the statutesays nothing about Sunday, the days mentioned mean consecutivedays and include Sundays. Under some statutes ( e.g. The ParliamentaryElections Act 1868, the Corrupt and Illegal PracticesPrevention Act 1883) Sundays and holidays are excluded inreckoning days, and consequently all the Sundays, &c., of aprescribed sequence of days would be eliminated. So also, bycustom, the word “day” may be understood in some specialsense. In bills of lading and charter parties, when “days” or“running days” are spoken of without qualification, theyusually mean consecutive days, and Sundays and holidays arecounted, but when there is some qualification, as where a charterparty required a cargo “to be discharged in fourteen days,”“days” will mean working days.
Working days, again, varyin different ports, and the custom of the port will decide in eachcase what are working days. In English charter parties, unlessthe contrary is expressed, Christmas day and other recognizedholidays are included as working days. A weather working day,a term sometimes used in charter parties, means a day when workis not prevented by the weather, and unless so provided for, aday on which work was rendered impossible by bad weatherwould still be counted as a working day. Lay days, which aredays given to the charterer in a charter party either to load orunload without paying for the use of the ship, are days of theweek, not periods of twenty-four hours.Days of Grace.—When a bill of exchange is not payable atsight or on demand, certain days (called days of grace, frombeing originally a gratuitous favour) are added to the time ofpayment as fixed by the bill, and the bill is then due and payableon the last day of grace. In the United Kingdom, by the Bills ofExchange Act 1882, three days are allowed as days of grace, butwhen the last day of grace falls on Sunday, Christmas day, GoodFriday or a day appointed by royal proclamation as a publicfast or thanksgiving day, the bill is due and payable on thepreceding business day.
If the last day of grace is a bank holiday(other than Christmas day or Good Friday), or when the last dayof grace is a Sunday, and the second day of grace is a bankholiday, the bill is due and payable on the succeeding businessday. Days of grace ( dies non) are in existence practically amongEnglish-speaking peoples only. They were abolished by theFrench Code (Code de Commerce, Liv.
135), and bymost, if not all, of the European codes since framed.Civil Days.—An artificial or civil day is, to a certain extent,difficult to define; it “may be regarded as a convenient termto signify all the various kinds of ‘day’ known in legal proceedingsother than the natural day.” ( Ency. English Law, tit.“Day”). The Jews, Chaldeans and Babylonians began theday at the rising of the sun; the Athenians at the fall; theUmbri in Italy began at midday; the Egyptians and Romansat midnight; and in England, the United States and most of thecountries of Europe the Roman civil day still prevails, the dayusually commencing as soon as the clock begins to strike 12 P.M.of the preceding day.In England the period of the civil day may also vary underdifferent statutes.
In criminal law the day formerly commencedat sunrise and extended to sunset, but by the Larceny Act 1861the day is that period between six in the morning and nine inthe evening. The same period of time comprises a day under theHousing of the Working Classes Act 1885 and the Public Health(London) Act 1891, but under the Public Health (Scotland) Act1897 “day” is the period between 9 A.M. By an actof 1845, regulating the labour of children in print-works, “day”is defined as from 6 A.M. Daytime, within whichdistress for rent must be made, is from sunrise to sunset ( Tultonv. Darke, 1860, 2 L.T. An obligation to pay money on acertain day is theoretically discharged if the money is paid beforemidnight of the day on which it falls due, but custom has so farmodified this that the law requires reasonable hours to beobserved. If, for instance, payment has to be made at a bankor place of business, it must be within business hours.When an act of parliament is expressed to come into operationon a certain day, it is to be construed as coming into operationon the expiration of the previous day (Interpretation Act 1889,§ 36; Statutes Definition of Time Act 1880).Under the orders of the supreme court the word “day” hastwo meanings.
For purposes of personal service of writs, itmeans any time of the day or night on week-days, but excludesthe time from twelve midnight on Saturday till twelve midnighton Sunday. For purposes of service not required to be personal,it means before six o’clock on any week-day except Saturday,and before 2 P.M. On Saturday.Closed Days, i.e. Sunday, Christmas day and Good Friday, areexcluded from all fixtures of time less than six days: otherwisethey are included, unless the last day of the time fixed falls onone of those days (R.S.C., O. Lxiv.).American Practice.—In the United States a day is the spaceof time between midnight and midnight.
The law pays noregard to fractions of a day except to prevent injustice. A“day’s work” is by statute in New York fixed at eight hoursfor all employees except farm and domestic servants, and foremployees on railroads at ten hours (Laws 1897, ch. Inthe recording acts relating to real property, fractions of a dayare of the utmost importance, and all deeds, mortgages and otherinstruments affecting the property, take precedence in the orderin which they were filed for record.
Days of grace are abolishedin many of the seventeen states in which the Negotiable Instrumentslaw has been enacted. Sundays and public holidays areusually excluded in computing time if they are the last daywithin which the act was to be done.
General public holidaysthroughout the United States are Christmas, Thanksgiving (lastThursday in November) and Independence (July 4th) daysand Washington’s birthday (February 22nd). The severalstates have also certain local public holidays. I.)DAYLESFORD, a town of Talbot county, Victoria, Australia,74 m.
Of Melbourne. It lies onthe flank of the Great Dividing Range, at an elevation of 2030 ft.On Wombat Hill are beautiful public gardens commandingextensive views, and a fine convent of the Presentation Order.Much wheat is grown in the district, and gold-mining, bothquartz and alluvial, is carried on. Daylesford has an importantmining school. Near the town are the Hepburn mineral springsand a number of beautiful waterfalls, and 6 m. From it is MountFranklin, an extinct volcano.DAYTON, a city of Campbell county, Kentucky, U.S.A., onthe S. Bank of the Ohio river, opposite Cincinnati, and adjoiningBellevue and Newport, Ky. (1890) 4264; (1900) 6104 including655 foreign-born and 63 negroes; (1910) 6979.
It is servedby the Chesapeake & Ohio railway at Newport, of which it is asuburb, largely residential. It has manufactories of watch-cases877and pianos, and whisky distilleries.
In the city is the SpeersMemorial hospital. Microphone echo software pc free. Dayton was settled and incorporated in1849.DAYTON, a city and the county-seat of Montgomery county,Ohio, U.S.A., at the confluence of Wolf Creek, Stillwater riverand Mad river with the Great Miami, 57 m. Of Cincinnatiand about 70 m.
(1890) 61,220;(1900) 85,333; (1910) 116,577. In 1900 there were 10,053foreign-born and 3387 negroes; of the foreign-born 6820 wereGermans and 1253 Irish.
Dayton is served by the Erie,the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the Pittsburg,Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the Cincinnati, Hamilton &Dayton, and the Dayton & Union railways, by ten interurbanelectric railways, centring here, and by the Miami & Erie Canal.The city extends more than 5 m. To W., and 3½ m. To S., lies for the most part on level ground at an elevation ofabout 740 ft. Above sea-level, and numerous good, hard gravelroads radiate from it in all directions through the surroundingcountry, a fertile farming region which abounds in limestone, usedin the construction of public and private buildings. Among themore prominent buildings are the court-house—the portion firsterected being designed after the Parthenon—the Steele highschool, St Mary’s college, Notre Dame academy, the MemorialBuilding, the Arcade Building, Reibold Building, the AlgonquinHotel, the post office, the public library (containing about 75,000volumes), the Young Men’s Christian Association building andseveral churches. At Dayton are the Union Biblical seminary,a theological school of the United Brethren in Christ, and thepublishing house of the same denomination. By an agreementmade in 1907 the school of theology of Ursinus College (Collegeville,Pennsylvania; the theological school since 1898 had beenin Philadelphia) and the Heidelberg Theological seminary(Tiffin, Ohio) united to form the Central Theological seminary ofthe German Reformed Church, which was established in Daytonin 1908.
The boulevard and park along the river add attractivenessto the city. Among the charitable institutions are the Daytonstate hospital (for the insane), the Miami Valley and the StElizabeth hospitals, the Christian Deaconess, the Widows’ and theChildren’s homes, and the Door of Hope (for homeless girls);and 1 m. Of the city is the central branch of the NationalHome for disabled volunteer soldiers, with its beautifullyornamented grounds, about 1 sq. The Mad river ismade to furnish good water-power by means of a hydraulic canalwhich takes its water through the city, and Dayton’s manufacturesare extensive and varied, the establishments of theNational Cash Register Company employing in 1907 about 4000wage-earners. This company is widely known for its “welfarework” on behalf of its operatives. Baths, lunch-rooms, rest-rooms,clubs, lectures, schools and kindergartens have beensupplied, and the company has also cultivated domestic prideby offering prizes for the best-kept gardens, &c.
From Aprilto July 1901 there was a strike in the already thoroughly unionizedfactories; complaint was made of the hectoring of unionmen by a certain foreman, the use in toilet-rooms of towelslaundered in non-union shops (the company replied by allowingthe men to supply towels themselves), the use on doors of springsnot union-made (these were removed by the company), andespecially the discharge of four men whom the company refusedto reinstate. The company was victorious in the strike, and thefactory became an “open shop.” In addition to cash registers,the city’s manufactured products include agricultural implements,clay-working machinery, cotton-seed and linseed oil machinery,filters, turbines, railway cars (the large Barney-Smith car worksemployed 1800 men in 1905), carriages and wagons, sewing-machines(the Davis Sewing Machine Co.), automobiles, clothing,flour, malt liquors, paper, furniture, tobacco and soap. The totalvalue of the manufactured product, under the “factory system,”was $31,015,293 in 1900 and $39,596,773 in 1905. Dayton’ssite was purchased in 1795 from John Cleves Symmes by a partyof Revolutionary soldiers, and it was laid out as a town in 1796by Israel Ludlow (one of the owners), by whom it was named inhonour of Jonathan Dayton (1760-1824), a soldier in the War ofIndependence, a member of Congress from New Jersey in 1791-1799,and a United States senator in 1799-1805. It was madethe county-seat in 1803, was incorporated as a town in 1805,grew rapidly after the opening of the canal in 1828, and in 1841was chartered as a city.DEACON (Gr.
Διάκονος, minister, servant), the name givento a particular minister or officer of the Christian Church. Thestatus and functions of the office have varied in different ages andin different branches of Christendom.( a) The Ancient Church.—The office of deacon is almost as oldas Christianity itself, though it is impossible to fix the momentat which it came into existence. Tradition connects its originwith the appointment of “the Seven” recorded in Acts vi.This connexion, however, is questioned by a large and increasingnumber of modern scholars, on the ground that “the Seven”are not called deacons in the New Testament and do not seem tohave been identified with them till the time of Irenaeus ( A.D. 180).The first definite reference to the diaconate occurs in St Paul’sEpistle to the Philippians (i. 1), where the officers of the Churchare described as “bishops and deacons”—though it is notunlikely that earlier allusions are to be found in 1 Cor. 28and Romans xii.
In the pastoral epistles the office seems tohave become a permanent institution of the Church, and specialqualifications are laid down for those who hold it (1 Tim. 8).By the time of Ignatius ( A.D.
110) the “three orders” of theministry were definitely established, the deacon being the lowestof the three and subordinate to the bishop and the presbyters.The inclusion of deacons in the “three orders” which wereregarded as essential to the existence of a true Church sharplydistinguished them from the lower ranks of the ministry, and gavethem a status and position of importance in the ancient Church.The functions attaching to the office varied at different times.In the apostolic age the duties of deacons were naturally vagueand undefined. They were “helpers” or “servants” of theChurch in a general way and served in any capacity that wasrequired of them. With the growth of the episcopate, however,the deacons became the immediate ministers of the bishop.Their duties included the supervision of Church property, themanagement of Church finances, the visitation of the sick, thedistribution of alms and the care of widows and orphans.
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Theywere also required to watch over the souls of the flock and reportto the bishop the cases of those who had sinned or were in need ofspiritual help. “You deacons,” says the Apostolical Constitutions(4th century), “ought to keep watch over all who needwatching or are in distress, and let the bishop know.” With thegrowth of hospitals and other charitable institutions, however,the functions of deacons became considerably curtailed. See Thomassinus, Vetus ac nova disciplina, pars i. 51 f.and lib.
(Lugdunum, 1706); J. Seidl, Der Diakonat inder katholischen Kirche (Regensburg, 1884); R. Sohm, Kirchenrecht,i. 121-137 (Leipzig, 1892); F. Hort, The Christian Ecclesia(London, 1897).DEACONESS ( ἡ διάκονος or διακόνισσα, servant, minister),the name given to a woman set apart for special service in theChristian Church. The origin and early history of the office areveiled in obscurity.
It is quite certain that from the 3rd centuryonward there existed in the Eastern Church an order of women,known as deaconesses, who filled a position analogous to that ofdeacons. They are quite distinct from the somewhat similarorders of “virgins” and “widows,” who belonged to a lowerplane in the ecclesiastical system.
The order is recognized in thecanons of the councils of Nicaea (325) and Chalcedon (451), andis frequently mentioned in the writings of Chrysostom (some ofwhose letters are addressed to deaconesses at Constantinople),Epiphanius, Basil, and indeed most of the more importantFathers of the 4th and 5th centuries. Deaconesses, upon enteringtheir office, were ordained much in the same way as deacons,but the ordination conveyed no sacerdotal powers or authority.Epiphanius says quite distinctly that they were woman-eldersand not priestesses in any sense of the term, and that theirmission was not to interfere with the functions allotted to priestsbut simply to perform certain offices in connexion with the care ofwomen. Several specimens of the ordination service for deaconesseshave been preserved (see Cecilia Robinson, The Ministry ofDeaconesses, London, 1878, appendix B, p. The functionsof the deaconess were as follows: (1) To assist at the baptism ofwomen, especially in connexion with the anointing of the bodywhich in the ancient Church always preceded immersion; (2) tovisit the women of the Church in their homes and to ministerto the needs of the sick and afflicted; (3) according to the ApostolicalConstitutions they acted as door-keepers in the church,received women as they entered and conducted them to theirallotted seats. In the Western Church, on the other hand, wehear nothing of the order till the 4th century, when an attemptseems to have been made to introduce it into Gaul. Muchopposition, however, was encountered, and the movement wascondemned by the council of Orange in 441 and the council ofEpaone in 517.
In spite of the prohibition the institution madesome headway, and traces of it are found later in Italy, but itnever became as popular in the West as it was in the East. In themiddle ages the order fell into abeyance in both divisions of theChurch, the abbess taking the place of the deaconess. Whetherdeaconesses, in the later sense of the term, existed before 250is a disputed point.
The evidence is scanty and by no meansdecisive. There are only three passages which bear upon thequestion at all. (i) Romans xvi. 1: Phoebe is called ἡ διάκονος,but it is quite uncertain whether the word is used in its technicalsense. 11: after stating the qualifications necessaryfor deacons the writer adds, “Women in like manner mustbe grave—not slanderers,” &c.; the Authorized Version tookthe passage as referring to deacons’ wives, but many scholarsthink that by “women” deaconesses are meant. (iii) In Pliny’sfamous letter to Trajan respecting the Christians of Bithyniamention is made of two Christian maidservants “ quae ministraedicebantur”; whether ministrae is equivalent to διάκονοι, as isoften supposed, is dubious. On the whole the evidence does notseem sufficient to prove the contention that an order of deaconesses—inthe ecclesiastical sense of the term—existed from theapostolic age.In modern times several attempts have been made to revivethe order of deaconesses.
In 1833 Pastor Fleidner founded “anorder of deaconesses for the Rhenish provinces of Westphalia”at Kaiserswerth. The original aim of the institution was to trainnurses for hospital work, but its scope was afterwards extendedand it trained its members for teaching and parish work as well.Kaiserswerth became the parent of many similar institutionsin different parts of the continent. A few years later, in 1847,Miss Sellon formed for the first time a sisterhood at Devonportin connexion with the Church of England. Her example wasgradually followed in other parts of the country, and in 1898there were over two thousand women living together in differentsisterhoods. The members of these institutions do not representthe ecclesiastical deaconesses, however, since they are notministers set apart by the Church; and the sisterhoods are merelyvoluntary associations of women banded together for spiritualfellowship and common service.
In 1861 Bishop Tait set apartMiss Elizabeth Ferard as a deaconess by the laying on of hands,and she became the first president of the London DeaconessInstitution. Other dioceses gradually adopted the innovation.It has received the sanction of Convocation, and the LambethConference in 1897 declared that it “recognized with thankfulnessthe revival of the office of deaconess,” though at the sametime it protested against the indiscriminate use of the title andlaid it down emphatically that the name must be restricted tothose who had been definitely set apart by the bishop for theposition and were working under the direct supervision andcontrol of the ecclesiastical authority in the parish. M.)DEADWOOD, a city and the county-seat of Lawrence county,South Dakota, U.S.A., about 180 m.
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(1890)2366; (1900) 3498, of whom 707 were foreign-born; (1905) 4364;(1910) 3653. It is served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincyand the Chicago & North-Western railways. It lies on hillyground in the canyon of Whitewood Creek at an elevation of about4530 ft. Deadwood is the commercial centre of the Black Hills.About it are several gold mines (including the well-known Home-stakemine), characterized by the low grade of their ores (whichrange from $2 to $8 per ton), by their vast quantity, and by theease of mining and of extracting the metal.
The ore containsfree gold, which is extracted by the simple process of stampingand amalgamation, and refractory values, extracted by thecyaniding process. Several hundred tons of ore are treatedthus in Deadwood and its environs daily, and its stamp millsare exceeded in size only by those of the Treadwell mine in S.E.Alaska, and by those on the Rand in South Africa. The discoveryof gold here was made known in June 1875, and in February1877 the United States government, after having purchased theland from the Sioux Indians, opened the place for legal settlement.DEAF AND DUMB. The term “deaf” is frequently appliedto those who are deficient in hearing power in any degree, howeverslight, as well as to people who are unable to detect theloudest sounds by means of the auditory organs. It is impossibleto draw a hard and fast line between the deaf and the hearing atany particular point. For the purposes of this article, however,that denotation which is generally accepted by educators of thedeaf may be given to the term.
This makes it refer to those whoare so far handicapped as to be incapable of instruction by theordinary means of the ear in a class of those possessing normalhearing. Paradoxical though it may seem, it is yet true to saythat “dumbness” in our sense of the word does not, strictlyspeaking, exist, though the term “dumb” may, for all practicalpurposes, fairly be applied to many of the deaf even after theyare supposed to have learnt how to speak. Oral teachers nowconfess that it is not worth while to try to teach more than alarge percentage of the deaf to speak at all. We are not concernedwith aphasia, stammering or such inability to articulateas may be due to malformation of the vocal organs. In the caseof the deaf and dumb, as these words are generally understood,dumbness is merely the result of ignorance in the use of the voice,this ignorance being due to the deafness. The vocal organs areperfect. The deaf man can laugh, shout, and in fact utter anyand every sound that the normal person can.
But he does notspeak English (if that happens to be his nationality) for the samereason that a French child does not, which is that he has neverheard it. There is in fact no more a priori reason why an Englishbaby, born in England, should talk English than that it shouldtalk any other language.
English may be correctly describedas its “mother tongue,” but not its natural language; the onlyreason why one person speaks English and another Russian isthat each imitated that particular language which he heardin infancy. This imitation depends upon the ability to hear.Hence if one has never heard, or has lost hearing in early childhood,he has never been able to imitate that language which hisparents and others used, and the condition of so-called dumbnessis added to his deafness.
From this it follows that if the sense ofhearing be not lost till the child has learnt to speak fluently, theability to speak is unaffected by the calamity of deafness, exceptthat after many years the voice is likely to become high-pitched,or too guttural, or peculiar in some other respect, owing to theabsence of the control usually exercised by the ear. It alsofollows that, to a certain extent, the art of speech can be taughtthe deaf person even though he were born deaf. Theoretically,he is capable of talking just as well as his hearing brother, forthe organs of speech are as perfect in one as in the other, exceptthat they suffer from lack of exercise in the case of the deaf man.Practically, he can never speak perfectly, for even if he weremade to attempt articulation as soon as he is discovered to bedeaf, the fact that the ear, the natural guide of the voice, is useless,lays upon him a handicap which can never be wiped out.
Hecan never hear the tone of his teacher’s voice nor of his own; hecan only see small and, in many instances, scarcely discerniblemovements of the lips, tongue, nose, cheeks and throat in thosewho are endeavouring to teach him to speak, and he can neverhope to succeed in speech through the instrumentality of suchunsatisfactory appeals to his eye as perfectly as the hearing childcan with the ideal adaptation of the voice to the ear. Soundappeals to the ear, not the eye, and those who have to rely uponthe latter to imitate speech must suffer by comparison.Deafness then, in our sense, means the incapacity to beinstructed by means of the ear in the normal way, and dumbnessmeans only that ignorance of how to speak one’s mothertongue which is the effect of the deafness.Of such deaf people many can hear sound to some extent.Dr Kerr Love quotes several authorities ( Deaf Mutism, pp. 58 ff.)to show that 50 or 60% are absolutely deaf, while 25% candetect loud sounds such as shouting close to the ear, and the restcan distinguish vowels or even words. He himself thinks thatnot more than 15 or 20% are totally deaf—sometimes only 7 or8%; that ability to hear speech exists in about one in four,while ten or fifteen in each hundred are only semi-deaf. Herightly warns against the use of tuning forks or other instrumentsheld on the bones of the head as tests of hearing,because the vibration which is felt, not heard, may very oftenbe mistaken for sound.Dr Edward M.
Gallaudet, president of the Columbia Institutionfor the Deaf in Washington, D.C., suggests the following termsfor use in dividing the whole class of the deaf into its main sections,though it is obviously impossible to split them up into perfectlydefined subdivisions, where, as a matter of fact, you have eachdegree of deafness and dumbness shading into the next:—thespeaking deaf, the semi-speaking deaf, the mute deaf (or deaf-mute),the speaking semi-deaf, the mute semi-deaf, the hearing mute andthe hearing semi-mute. He points out that the last two classes areusually persons of feeble mental power.
We should exclude thesealtogether from the list, since their hearing is, presumably, perfect,and should add the semi-speaking semi-deaf before the mutesemi-deaf. This would give two main divisions—those whocannot hear at all, and those who have partial hearing—withthree subsections in each main division—those who speak,those who have partial speech and those who do not speak at all.Where the hearing is perfect it is paradoxical to class a personwith the deaf, and the dumbness in such a case is due (wherethere is no malformation of the vocal organs) to inability of themind to pay attention to, and imitate, what the ear really hears.In such cases this mental weakness is generally shown in otherways besides that of not hearing sounds.
Probably no sign willbe given of recognizing persons or objects around; there will be881in fact, a general incapacity of the whole body and senses. Itis incorrect to designate such persons as deaf and feeble-mindedor deaf and idiotic, because in many cases their organs of hearingare as perfect as are other organs of their body, and they are nomore deaf than blind, though they may pay no attention to whatthey hear any more than to what they see.
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They are simplyweak in intellect, and this is shown by the disuse of any and all oftheir senses; hence it is incorrect to classify them according toone, and one only, of the evidences of this mental weakness. With regard to the question of marriages of the deaf, ProfessorEdward Allen Fay’s work is so complete that the results of his sixyears’ labour are particularly worthy of notice, for, as the introductionstates, the book is a “collection of records of marriages of thedeaf far larger than all previous collections put together,” and itdeals in detail with 4471 such marriages. The summary of statisticsis as follows ( Marriages of the Deaf in America, p. Addison ( Deaf Mutism, p. 283) quotes John Bulwer as follows:—“Whatthough you (the deaf and dumb) cannot express your mindsin those verbal contrivances of man’s invention: yet you want notspeech who have your whole body for a tongue, having a languagewhich is more natural and significant, which is common to you withus, to wit, gesture, the general and universal language of humannature.” The same writer says further on (p. 297): “The sameprocess of growth goes on alike with the signs of the deaf and dumbas with the spoken words of the hearing. Arnold, than whom nostronger advocate of the oral method exists, recognizes this in hiscomment on this principle of the German school, for he writes: ‘Itis much to be regretted that teachers should indulge in unqualifiedassertions of the impossibility of deaf-mutes attaining to clear conceptionsand abstract thinking by signs or mimic gestures.
Factsare against them.’ Again, Graham Bell, who is generally consideredan opponent of the sign system, says: ‘I think that if we have themental condition of the child alone in view without reference tolanguage, no language will reach the mind like the language of signs;it is the method of reaching the mind of the deaf child.’”The opinions of the deaf themselves, from all parts of the world,are practically unanimous on this question. In the words of DrSmith, president of the World’s Congress of the Deaf held at StLouis, Missouri, in 1904, under the a.